无为：道家的审美秩序之路 Non-action: The Way to Daoist Aesthetic Order

西方的理性秩序是指有一个支配性的原理（不管它是指理性或上帝）在强制实行世界秩序。相对而言，华人的审美秩序的观念对这种原理或其目的论并不感兴趣。恰恰相反，审美秩序关心的是个体自我更新的观念，这就是‘混沌’的本意。

审美秩序就是‘道’的秩序，而道的观念是基于这样的一种理解：宇宙的唯一永恒就是改变，我们应该去理解和尝试去与这种改变取得和谐。这个观念在《易经》中就有提到：‘一阴一阳谓之道。’

道家担心人类的欲望会使宇宙的自然运作变成反常。老子在《道德经》里就说：‘取天下常以无事，及其有事，不足以取天下。’这就形成了‘无为’的思想，描述个人意志与环境的自然和谐与正道。

相同的，它表示这种行为会取得无限的正面成绩，因为它允许所有万物发展它们的全部的不受限制的潜力：

‘道常无为而无不为。候王若能守之，万物将自化。化而欲作，吾将镇之以无名之朴，镇之以无名之朴，夫将不欲。不欲以静，天下将自定。’

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The Western rational order refers to the idea that there is one overarching external principle, whether it be Reason or God, imposes the order on the world. In comparison, the Chinese sense of aesthetic order is not keen on this external principle or its twin of teleology. Rather, it is concerned with the idea of self-renewal of particulars, which is what ‘Hun Dun’ (Choas) means.

The aesthetic order is the order of the Dao, a concept that is based on the understanding that the only constant in the universe is change and that we must understand and attempt to harmonize ourselves with this change. This idea is suggested in Yijing which states that ‘the successive movement of the inactive Yin and active Yang operations constitutes what is called the Dao.’

The Daoists are concerned that the natural operations of the cosmos are perverted by the desires of human beings. Laozi says in Daode Jing that ‘the world is ruled by letting things takes their natural course. It cannot be ruled by going against nature or arrogance.’ This led to the formation of the doctrine of ‘non-action’ which describes the harmonization of one’s personal will with natural harmony and justice of Nature.

Likewise, it suggests that this mode of action yields ubiquitously positive results, as it allows everything to develop to its full, untrammelled potential:

Dao abides in non-action yet nothing is left undone. If kings and lords observed this, the ten thousand things would develop naturally. If they still desired to act they would return to the simplicity of formless substance. Without form there is no desire. Without desire there is tranquillity. And in this way all things would be at peace.

和实生物，同则不继 Harmony is Fecund, Sameness is Barren



Shi Bo 史伯

华人传统和谐的观念指向和而不同。西周末年的思想家史伯与郑国的桓公的一次交谈中谈到西周的衰败时，就很详细的解释了这个看法。这谈话记录在于公元前四世纪所编辑的历史叙事书《国语》中的《郑语》。

今日中国创造和谐社会的努力中，就广泛研究了史伯的看法。史伯的和谐观点强调异而不是同。

下面是史伯给予郑桓公的忠告：

夫和实生物，同则不继。以他平他谓之和，故能丰长而物归之。若以同裨同，尽乃弃矣。

故先王以土与金、木、水、火杂，以成百物。是以和五味以调口，刚四支以卫体，和六律以聪耳，正七体以役心，平八索以成人，建九纪以立纯德，合十数以训百体。出千品，具万方，计亿事，材兆物，收经入，行姟极。故王者居九畡之田以食兆民，取经入以食万官。周训而能用之，和乐如一。夫如是，和之至也。

于是乎先王聘后于异姓，求财于有方，择臣取谏，工而讲以多物，务和同也。声一无听，物一无文，味一无果，物一不讲。

王将弃是类也而与剸同。天夺之明，欲无弊，得乎？

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The Chinese traditional idea of harmony means unity in diversity. This idea was fully elaborated by Shi Bo, a thinker lived in the Western Zhou dynasty in a conversation he had with Duke Huan of the state of Zheng to explain the reason for the decline of Zhou dynasty. This was recorded in the classical book Discourses of States, a collection of historical narratives probably compiled around fourth century BC.

Shi Bo’s idea of harmony, which is extensively studied by China today in their effort to create a harmonious society, underscores the fertility of the kind of harmony that maximizes difference.

Below is the advice given by Shi Bo to Duke Huan:

While harmony is fecund, sameness is barren. Things accommodating each other on equal terms are called blending together in harmony, and in so doing they are able to flourish and grow, and other things are drawn to them. But when same is added to same, once it is used up, there is no more.

Hence, the Former Kings blended earth with metal, wood, fire, and water to make their products. They thereby harmonised the five flavours to satisfy their palate, strengthened the four limbs to protect the body, attuned the six musical notes to please the ear, integrated their seven orifices (senses) to nourish their hearts and minds, coordinated the eight (various) sectors of the body to complete their persons, established the nine main visceral meridians to situate their pure potency, instituted the ten official ranks to organise and evaluate the bureaucracy. This has resulted in having thousand grades of things, producing tens of thousands of ways of doing things, operating billion events, managing tens of billions of financial matters, collecting thousands of billions of tax revenues, working on numerous actions. Therefore the King possesses vast area of land for his subjects to produce food, and collects tax revenue to pay the court officials their remunerations. And harmony and pleasure prevailed to make them as one. To be like this is to attain the utmost in harmony.

In all of this, the Former Kings took their consorts from other clans, required as tribute those products that distinguished each region, and selected ministers and counsellors who would express a variety of opinions on issues, and made every effort to bring things into harmony. There is no music in a single note, no decoration in a single item, no relish in a single taste, no comparison with single thing.

Now the King of Zhou does not accept diversity of ideas, and instead adopts autocratic leadership style that favours telling people what to do. This has led the heaven to deprive him of his intellectual ability (to understand the meaning of harmony). And he still thinks that Zhou will not decay. How is it possible?

中庸：致中和 The Doctrine of the Mean: Full Attainment of Equilibrium

对华人而言，学习一门艺术最重要的就是要参与传统，艺术家要在吸取丰厚的传统养分与同时真实地据为己有之间找到适当的平衡点。如果一个人走极端，就是说极端个人主义或者极端遵照传统，那就会影响到获取艺术情感、做人与增强技术中的好料。

从在不断临摹大师作品就是一个例子。

从一方面来看，单是模仿古代大师其实可能把我们拒绝在传统生活之外，而不能获取传统所能给予我们的养分。如果所学到的技巧只限于模仿，我们就不能探索到审美表情里的欢愉与失意感。

另一方面，极端个人主义忽略了艺术与继承传统的紧密关系。和过分的遵照传统一样，过分的个人主义限制了一个人对培养内心修养的成功。

所以，艺术家如果能避免极端，他的能力与修养就能得到无限增强。儒家经典《中庸》就有说，‘喜、怒、哀、乐之未发，谓之中。发而皆中节，谓之和。中也者，天下之大本也。和也者，天下之达道也。致中和，天地位焉，万物育焉。’

意思就是说，个人与传统之间的平衡对艺术家的成就很重要，它也提醒我们，艺术的本来就是人道主义的。

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For Chinese, one of the most important aspects of taking up art is participating in a tradition, and artist must strike an appropriate balance between simultaneously drawing upon the richness of the tradition and finding a way to appropriate it authentically. If one leans towards an extreme, whether extreme individualism or extreme conformity, then the goods of artistic expression, person-making, and increase of skill will be affected.

A case in point is the practice of repetitiously copy the work of past masters.

On the one hand, merely imitating the past master could mean actually keep one from living the tradition and actualising the goods that it offers. One will not discover the joys and frustrations of aesthetic expression if the skill involved is limited to that of mimicry.

On the other hand, extreme individualism ignores the relationships that are integral to the continuation of the tradition. As with excessive conformity, excessive individualism limits one’s success to a practice’s internal goods.

Hence, artistic ability and personal refinement are maximised by avoiding these extremes. The classical Confucian text ‘The Doctrine of the Mean’ states, ‘Before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are established, there is equilibrium (zhong: the mean, the centre). The establishment of these feelings in proper measure of each and proper rhythm for all is called harmony (he). This equilibrium is the greatest source of the world; this harmony is the world's universal Way (Dao). With the full attainment of equilibrium and harmony comes the proper ordering of heaven and earth and the nourishment of all things.’

The claim is that striking a balance between individual and tradition is essential for flourishing artists and further reminds us that arts serve primarily humanitarian ends.

老子：有生于无 Lao Zi: Being is Born of Nothing

道家认为以宇宙的演化是根据本身的法则，而不是由神灵来创造的。反而，宇宙是在‘道’控制下，自然演化的产物。老子在《道德经》中形容道是一种宇宙的力量，这种力量创造与持续宇宙。他在第四十章中说：‘天下万物生于有，有生于无。’无就是‘无名’，指道。

老子认为天与地不是无限存在。道先于天与地。道以下面的方式产生天与地：‘道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物。’（《道德经》第四十二章）

换句话说，道产生或演变最初的统一体，这统一体分裂为二种力量，相交而产生万物。这两种力量就是老子所说的‘二’，也就是一般所指的天与地。

什么是道？‘有物混成，先天地生。寂兮寥兮，独立而不改，周行而不殆，可以为天地母。吾不知其名，强字之曰：道，强为之名曰：大。’（《道德经》第二十五章）

《道德经》第十一章所说的‘无’是有关道与空间：‘三十辐，共一毂，当其无，有车之用。埏埴以为器，当其无，有器之用。凿户牖以为室，当其无，有室之用。故有之以为利，无之以为用。’

但是老子并没有告诉我们道如何产生统一的世界。对道家而言，宇宙之开始不可知，也没有可识之终结。他们并不尝试去书写不可能书写的宇宙之创造，或‘世界之终结’的意义。道家所关心的是在这个永远变动周期中寻找方向，还有，在我们一生中，如何在没有一套固定法则可应用于所有情况之下做出正确的行动。

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Daoism considers that universal evolution follows its own laws and is not the product of divine creation. Rather, it is the product of spontaneous evolution under the control of the Dao. Lao Zi in Daodejing describes the Dao is as a cosmological force involved in creating and sustaining the universe. He says in Chapter 40, ‘The things of the world are born from being, and being is born of nothing.’ The term ‘wu’ (nothing or nothingness) in Chinese refers to ‘wuming’ (unnameable), which represents Dao.

Laozi considers that Heaven and Earth have not existed indefinitely. Dao preceded the formation of Heaven and Earth. The process of the generation of Heaven and Earth by Dao is resumed in the following formula, ‘Dao generates One, One generates Two, Two generates Three, Three generates the Myriad Beings. (Chapter 42).

In other words, Dao generated or evolved the primeval unified whole, which divided into two opposing forces, whose interpenetration generated all beings. The two forces referred to by Laozi as the 'Two' are commonly considered to be designate Heaven and Earth.

But what is Dao then? ‘There is a thing formed from confusion and born before heaven and earth. It is silent, solitary, independent and unchanging. It revolves everywhere and is never in danger. It can be the mother of all under heaven. I do not know its name, but I style it the Dao. If forced to give it a name, I call it the Great.’ (Chapter 25)

Dao is related to space (nothingness) in chapter 11:

'Thirty spokes share a single hub; grasp the nothingness at its centre to get the use of the wheel. Clay is fashioned to make a vessel; grasp the nothingness at the centre to get the use of the vessel. Bore windows and doors to create a room; grasp the nothingness of the interior to get the use of the room. That which is constitutes what is valuable, but that which is not constitutes what is of use. '

But Loazi does not tell us how Dao generates the unified world. For the Daoist, the beginning of the universe is unknowable and there is no discernable end. There is no attempt to write a record of a creation that cannot be recorded. There is no attempt to log a prediction of what ‘the end of the world’ would be like, or even what ‘the end of the world’ might mean. The Daoist is concerned about finding his bearings in a world of constantly changing cycles and about doing the right thing in a life where no static set of rules applies in every situation.

乐统同，礼辨异 Ceremony Distinguishes the Things in Which Men Differ

古代中国社会被称为‘礼仪之邦’，因为以仪以礼为基石，就如西方社会以法治国。

中文‘礼’或‘礼仪’在古代有祭祀的意思。儒家的意思中有礼貌、礼节以至个人在社会中地位的意思。在形式上，礼仪用来辨别众人，它的应用使人任何时候都认清谁是长幼、主客等等。从内涵来说，礼仪指示各人各司其职、各安其份。

礼仪可当作把人分类的方法，它以协议及礼节来建筑阶层关系，把人分配在不同社会地位而应遵照适当的言行举止。

在孔子生活中扮演重要角色的音乐则成为例外，它超越礼仪的界线，统一内心。

荀子在《乐记》就详述礼与乐的不同。

乐也者，情之不可变也，礼也者，理之不可易者也。

乐统同，礼辨异，礼乐之说，管乎人情矣。…

天尊地卑，君臣定矣。卑高已陈，贵贱位矣。动静有常，小大殊矣。方以类聚，物以群分，则性命不同矣。在天成象，在地成形；如此，则礼者天地之别也。

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Chinese call their ancient Chinese societies ‘societies of ceremonies’, because they were based on ceremonies or rituals, just as the Western societies are based on laws.

The Chinese term ‘li’ or ‘liyi’ (ceremony, rites or ritual) previously had the meaning of ‘sacrifice’. Its Confucian meaning ranges from politeness and propriety to the understanding of each person's correct place in society. Externally, ritual is used to distinguish between people; their usage allows people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder, who is the guest and who is the host and so forth. Internally, rites indicate to people their duty amongst others and what to expect from them.

Ritual can be seen as a means to divide people into categories, and builds hierarchical relationships through protocols and ceremonies, assigning everyone a place in society and a proper form of behaviour.

Music, which seems to have played a significant role in Confucius' life, is given as an exception, as it transcends such boundaries and ‘unifies the hearts’.

Xunzi had said in essay ‘Yueji’ (Record of Music):

In music we have the expression of feelings which do not admit of any change; in ceremonies that of principles which do not admit of any alteration.

Music embraces what all equally share; ceremony distinguishes the things in which men differ. Hence the theory of music and ceremonies embraces the whole nature of man …

(The relation) between ruler and minister was determined from a consideration of heaven (conceived of as) honourable, and earth (conceived of as) mean. The positions of noble and mean were fixed with a reference to the heights and depths displayed by the surface (of the earth). The regularity with which movement and repose follow each other (in the course of nature) led to the consideration of affairs as small and great. The different quarters (of the heavens) are grouped together, and the things (of the earth) are distinguished by their separate characteristics; and this gave rise to (the conception of) natures and their attributes and functions. In heaven there are formed its visible signs, and earth produces its (endless variety of) things; and thus it was that ceremonies were framed after the distinction, between heaven and earth.

老子：负阴抱阳 Laozi: Yin and Yang as Vital Forces

老子认为‘道’是所有个别原理中的最高原理。至今，华人心理文化的深层结构中还可以寻找到这种道的功能的踪迹与影响。老子说：

‘道生一， 一生二，二生三，三生万物。

万物负阴而抱阳，冲气以为和。’

一是指天与地最终来源的整体。二是指阴与阳这两种主要力量。三是指阴阳相交之后所形成的调和之气。

气有三种。第一种阴气强于阳气，而第二种气刚好相反，阳气压倒阴气。第三种是调和之气，阴阳调和而形成之气。

在道与阴阳的概念中含有自然的概念。自然有着自然而然之意，也有自发性和自我显露的意思。自然就是‘自我如此’或‘我或其他物体之本然’。这个概念把世间自然形态与人类在其间的活动联系起来。自然并不把自然规律当成严谨而先决来看待，而是当成自然运作。

自然的秩序被看成是无目的、已经决定了的，因为自然就是物体本来的状态，而不是与某种神灵的关系。这就给予由个别物体构成的自然世界天生的价值。

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Lao Zi thinks that the Dao is the supreme principle of all individual principles. The function of the Dao in general can still find its traces and influences deep in the psycho-cultural structure of the Chinese people today. He says:

‘The Dao produces the One. The One turns into Two. The Two gives rise to the Three. The Three brings forth the myriad of things.

The myriad things contain Yin and Yan as vital forces, which achieve harmony through their interactions.’

The One refers to the Whole as the ultimate origin of heaven and earth. The Two refers to two vital forces known as Yin and Yang. The Three is usually supposed to be a harmonised type of Qi which results from the interactions between Yin and Yang.

There are three type of Qi. The first type of Yin Qi overwhelms the Yang Qi, whereas the opposite happens in the second type of Yang Qi, i.e. Yang Qi overwhelms Yin Qi. The third type of Qi is a well-balanced one, both the Yin Qi and Yang Qi form into a harmonious realm.

In the ideas of the dao, the One, and Yinyang lies the idea of Ziran, most often translated as ‘naturalness’, but also containing the ideas of spontaneity and self-unfolding. Ziran basically means ‘self-so’ or ‘the self (or any other object) as it is naturally.’ This concept is most often associated with the natural ways in which the world and the people within it move. Ziran is considered not a law in the strict and determinative sense, but as the way things operate naturally.

This natural order is to be considered non-teleological and determined, for Ziran is the way things are in and of themselves, not as they are in relationship to something divine beyond themselves. This gives inherent worth to the cosmos as they conform to the natural ways in which they are constituted.

易经：圣人以神道设教 Yijing: The Spirit-like Way

如果康德与孔子能够见面，交流一下对事物的看法，他们可能会发现，他们对精神世界方面的看法，可能有不少是相同的。
康德相信我们只能认识经验的东西，所以我们不能够以推理来知道上帝的存在。可是，我们需要上帝这个理念来作为我们道德生活的基础。所以，上帝是一个必要的理念，为了过个好日子的必要，为了道德的必要。
可以说，孔子很可能并不相信神灵这些东西。他就被引述说他没有兴趣谈怪力乱神。所以，“季路問事鬼神，子曰：‘未能事人，焉能事鬼。’問死，曰： ‘未知生，焉知死。’”
可是，孔子并没有明确地说他反对神灵的事，因为他相信为了教化道德，那是一个必要的理念。所以《易经》说：‘观天之神道，而四时不惑，圣人以神道设教，而天下服矣。’
一个人不可能精确地知道什么是神道。可是，接受圣人的教化才是重要的。所以，为了有效地教导道德，可以神道设教。
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If Kant and Confucius had a chance to meet and exchange their views on various topics, probably they would find out that they actually shared some common views on the subject of spiritual world.
Kant believed that we can know only our experiences and as such we cannot know by our reason that God exists. However, we need the idea of God to serve as a foundation of our moral life. Therefore, God is a necessary idea, necessary for the living of good life, for morality.
Confucius, it is said, probably did not believe in spiritual things. He was quoted as saying that he was not interested in talking about devil, violence, disorder, or deities (gods and goddesses). So when Ji Lu asked about serving the spirits of the dead, Confucius said, 'While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits?' Ji Lu added, 'I venture to ask about death?' He answered, 'While you do not know life, how can you know about death?'
However, Confucius did not say explicitly he objected to spiritual things, probably because he thought it was a necessary idea for the sake of teaching morality. That is why Yijing says: ‘When we contemplate the spirit-like way of Heaven, we see how the four seasons proceed without error. The sages, in accordance with this spirit-like way, laid down their instructions, and all under heaven yield submission to them.’
It is impossible for anyone to know what exactly the spirit-like way is. However, the focus point is on conveying the sage’s instructions. Therefore, in order to effectively teach morality, we can lay down instructions in accordance with the spirit-like way.

不与圣人同忧 Dao Does Not Get into the Same Worries that the Sages Have

我们说，忧患意识在华人的心中是挥之不去的现象。正是这种忧患意识产生了华人的道德意识。忧患并非杞人忧天。所忧的是德之未修与学之未讲。
天地人是华人的宇宙观。天生之，地养之，人成之。
天地道是无是无非的。有阴必有阳，世上有好人，但也有坏人。天地对万物是平等的，下雨的时候好草与毒草同样得到滋润。万物一律平等，没有分别。
人，尤其是圣人，则不同。圣人忧国忧民。正如范仲淹所说：‘先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐。’
天地是无心地成就万物，它当然就没有圣人的忧患。
所以《易经》说：显诸仁，藏诸用，鼓万物而不与圣人同忧，盛德大业至矣哉。
这就说明了为什么华人的忧虑是关于人，人类，他们的生命与生活。
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We said that the worrying mentality is an on-going thing in the hearts of the Chinese. It is this worrying mentality that results in the Chinese moral value system. Worrying mentality is not about groundless fear or merely imagining things. It is concerned about one’s moral values not cultivated and knowledge not thoroughly discussed.
Heaven, Earth and Humanity form the Chinese view of a three-tier universe. Heaven gives birth to things; Earth nourishes things and provides for their material needs; and Humanity completes or perfects all things by maintaining proper patterning (i.e., through rites and music).
However, Heaven and Earth are neutral and they do not take sides. When there is Yin, there must be Yang. There are good people and bad people. Heaven and Earth treat everything equally. The rain waters both non-poisonous and poisonous grass. All myriad things are equal, and there is no differentiation made between them.
But human being, especially the sages are different. The sages always concern for their country and people. As pointed out by Fan Zhongyan of Song dynasty, the government officials ‘worry before all others have worries, rejoice after all others have rejoiced.’
Since the Heaven and Earth produce the myriad things naturally as they are, they of course do not have the sages’ worrying mentality.
That is why the Yijing says, Dao (ie Heaven and Earth) ‘manifests various benevolent expressions, and hides the various practical applications. It encourages all creations, but does not get into the same worries that the Sages have. Its manifold power and great work are indeed perfections!’
This explains the concern of the Chinese. It is about people, human beings and their life and living.

修身 Self-Cultivation

我们说，中国文化的基本精神赞成共生的精神与个人和个人所组成的社区相互存在。强调个人修养，因为通过个人修养可以达到丰富的知性与道德理解，这些理解会演化为和谐社会，最终改变世界。
‘大学’这对这点有很好的说明。
大学之道：在明明德，在亲民，在止于至善。知止而后有定，定而后能静，静而后能安，安而后能虑，虑而后能得。
物有本末，事有终始，知所先后，则近道矣。
古之欲明明德于天下者，先治其国；欲治其国者，先齐其家；欲齐其家者，先修其身；欲修其身者，先正其心；欲正其心者，先诚其意；欲诚其意者，先致其知；致 知在格物。物格而后知致，知致而后意诚，意诚而后心正，心正而后身修，身修而后家齐，家齐而后国治，国治而后天下平。
自天子以至于庶人，壹是皆以修身为本。其本乱而末治者否矣；其所厚者薄，而其所薄者厚，未之有也。
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It is said that the underlying spirit of Chinese culture endorses the spirit of symbiosis and mutuality of individuals and the community formed by them. Self-cultivation is emphasised as it is through self-cultivation that one can achieve the comprehensive intellectual and moral understanding that will evolve a harmonious community and ultimately change the world.
This is well explained in the book ‘Great Learning’.
The way of Great Learning lies in demonstrating real character, in cherishing the common people, and making a commitment to doing what is best. Such a course of learning can only be set once one has made this commitment. Only in making such a course of learning is one able to find equilibrium, only in having found equilibrium is one able to become self-assured, only in having become self-assured is one able to deliberate in what one does, and only in being deliberate in what one does is one able to get what one is after.
Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. It is in realising what should have priority that will lead us near to what is taught in the Great Learning.
The Ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the kingdom first governed well their own States. Wishing to govern well their States, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their States were rightly governed. Their States being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy.
From the emperor down to the commoners, everything is rooted in personal cultivation. There can be no healthy branches when the root is rotten. It has never been the case that what was of great importance has been slightly cared for and at the same time that what was of slight importance has been greatly cared for.

道可道，非常道 Dao That Can be Dao-ed

老子在道德经一开始就说：道可道，非常道。
一般上，第二个‘道’字被解为‘说道’的道，就是说，能够被说出来的道，并不是永恒的道。
把第二个道当成动词来解，一般没有异议。可是解为‘说道’，却是可质疑的。在先秦，并没有把道当作‘说道’的用法，所以把道当动词，是如何解释，就要费一点脑筋了。
如果道是一种法则，或者可以把这句话解为：有方法与法则的道，不是永恒的道。
而无就是不可名，有就是可名。
以这样的理解来读道德经的第一章，可能有新的领悟：
道可道，非常道。名可名，非常名。
无名，天地之始；有名，万物之母。
故常无，欲与观其妙；常有，欲与观其皦。
此两者，同出而异名，同为之玄。
玄之又玄，众妙之门。
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Laozi started its Daode Jing by saying: Dao that can be Dao-ed is not the eternal Dao.
There is no doubt that the second word Dao is used as a verb. The sentence is generally interpreted as ‘Dao that can be told is not the eternal Dao’. In this interpretation, Dao-ed means ‘told’. However, this interpretation may not be acceptable. This is because the word Dao used as a verb to mean ‘say’ happened only much later after Qin dynasty. It is also not easy to understand the word Dao used as a verb in Chinese.
If we agree that Dao refers to a way or a rule, then perhaps one can interpret the sentence to mean the Dao that can be referred to as a Way or Rule is not the eternal Dao.
Wu (无) means the unnamable, and You (有) means the namable.
With this, probably we can interpret the first chapter of Daode Jing as:
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The Dao that can be Dao-ed is not the eternal Dao,
The Name that can be named is not the constant Name.
The Unnamable is the origin of Heaven and Earth;
The Namable is the mother of the myriad things.
Therefore it is always from the Unnamable the subtlety of the Dao can be contemplated;
Similarly it is always from the Namable that the manifestation of Dao can be perceived.
These two have the same sources but different names.
They both can be called deep and profound.
The Deepest and Most profound is the doorway to all subtleties.

易经：易者，象也 Yi-jing: The Yi Consists of Symbols

我们注意到易经讲到两个概念：形而上道与器道。易经基本上是讲形而下的器道，也就是指统管世界万物每类事物的个别的‘理’。这样看来，比起器道来，理是一个更恰当的名词。
易经虽名为变易之书，其实是一本巫术之书。八卦的每一条线代表现实生活中个别情况的阐述与讯息。后来，它被延伸为一个或多个宇宙原理之道。
对整个六十四卦和它们的384爻线的阐述，理代表宇宙的所有之道。
卦或形成卦的爻线，就被当成代表这些宇宙之道的图形。
所以，易经说，‘易者，象也。’每个象就是一个可以纳入某个公式的变数或条件。这些公式代表道，顺着它会享受好运，反之则要接受坏运之苦。
从道德观点来看，顺着它就对，反之就是错。
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We noted Yi-jing introduces the concepts of Above-form Dao and Within-Form Dao. Yi-jing is basically concerned with the Within-form Dao, which are actually the principles that govern each separate category of things in the universe. Perhaps, the Chinese word li (principle) is a better term for Within-form Dao.
Yi-jing, although is known to be a Book of Changes, is actually a book of divination. Every line of a certain hexagram represents a comment and information applied to the various specific cases in actual life. It was later extended to represent one or more Dao or universal principles.
The comments on the entire sixty-four hexagrams and their 384 individual lines are thus supposed to represent all the Dao in the universal.
The hexagrams and the individual lines that form the hexagrams are looked upon as graphic symbols of these universal Dao.
Thus, Yi-jing says, ‘The Yi consists of symbols.’ Each symbol is a variable or condition that can fit into a certain formula. The formula represents the Dao which if one obeys it, one will enjoy good luck, and otherwise one will suffer bad fortune.
From the moral view point, if one obeys it, one is right, but if not, one is wrong.

老子：道法自然 Laozi: Dao Follows the Way of Spontaneity

我们注意到天道、地道和人道是形而下道。它们与形而上道有什么关系呢?
老子在道德经中说：‘故道大，天大，地大，人亦大。域中有四大，而人居其一焉。人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。’
所以道就是天、地、人道所遵守的最后之法。道法什么呢？道法自然。
这个自然需要解释。
在先秦，‘自然’二字几乎毫无例外是指‘自然而然’。自就是自己，然就是如此，自然就是自己如此。
后来，这个词的意思延伸指天然，物质世界，或自然的。这样，有些学者就把‘道法自然’错解为‘道师法自然界的规律’。
可以总结说，道不可名，无声，无形和无限。它就是自己如此而已。
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We noted that Dao of Heaven, Earth and Man are within-form Dao. What is their relationship with the Above-form Dao?
Laozi said in Daode Jing: ‘Therefore the Dao is a great; Heaven is great; Earth is great; and Man is also great. The four are great things in the universe, and Man is one of them. Man follows the way of Earth. Earth follows the way of Heaven. Heaven follows the way of the Dao. And the Dao follows the way of spontaneity.’
Dao is therefore the ultimate rule to be followed by Heaven, Earth and Man. But what rule does Dao follow? It follows the way of spontaneity.
The Chinese term ‘zi ran’ needs clarification.
During and before Qin dynasty (221-206 BC), the word ‘zi ran’ was used almost without exception to mean spontaneity or as-it-is. The word ‘zi’ means itself or on its own, and ‘ran’ means as it is. When the two words are put together, it means ‘as-it-is-ness’, or ‘as it is’.
However, the meaning of the term was later extended to mean also natural world, physical world, or naturally. As such, some scholars misinterpret the last sentence to mean ‘And the Dao follows the way of the Nature’.

One can therefore conclude that the Above-form Dao is unnamable, soundless, formless and boundless. It is itself and is ‘as-it-is’.

易经：天道、人道、地道 Yijing: The Three-tier Universe

易经清楚的说明宇宙的三结构：‘易之为书也，广大悉备，有天道焉，有人道焉，有地道焉。’
中国古典著作中，常把天道和地道合称为天道。天地为宇宙，天地之道就是天道。
人和天不是两个不同的个体，他们是宇宙完整的三结构，易经明显把人放在宇宙的中心，为其脑筋。
这样，易经提出了‘天人合一’的思想。
易经亦提出了天地人三道的六个属性：‘昔者圣人之作‘易’也，将以顺性命之理，是以立天之道曰阴与阳，立地之道曰柔与刚，立人之道曰仁与阳义。’
同‘中庸’中的‘天命之謂性，率性之謂道’一起读，我们可进一步理解天性和人性。
这里所说的天地人道其实都是‘形而下’道或器之道。易经说‘形而下者谓之器’，这器道是物质世界的原理。
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Yijing spells out clearly the theory of the three-tier universe when it says: ‘As a book the Yijing is vast and broad, comprehending all details. In it there is the Dao of Heaven, there is the Dao of Man, and there is the Dao of Earth.’
One should take note that in the Chinese classical books, very often Dao of Heaven and Earth are mentioned simply as the Dao of Heaven (tian dao). Since Heaven and Earth form the physical world, tian dao actually refers to the Dao of Nature.
Man and Nature are not two separate entities. Rather, they form integral parts of the three-tier universe and we have noted that Yijing clearly positions Man at the centre of this universe as its brain.
With this, Yijing is said to have developed the idea of oneness between Man and Nature.
Yijing also points out the six major attributes/elements of these three Dao: ‘In the past, when the sages made Yijing, they developed it in compliance with the ways of human nature. Therefore, the elements constituting the Heaven way are yin and yang; the elements constituting the Earth are the soft and the hard; the elements making out the way of Man are humanity and righteousness.’
One should read the above together with the following sentences from Zhong Yong (The Doctrine of Mean) to further reflect the idea of human and terrestrial nature: ‘What (ethical) Tian confers (on man) is called his (human) nature; following our straightforward nature is called the Dao.’
The three Dao mentioned here are actually the within-form Dao, or the Way of Qi (器). Yijing says: ‘What is within Form are called Qi (器)’ and the within-form Dao applies therefore to all things in the terrestrial world.

中庸 ：天命之謂性 Zhong Yong: What Tian Confers (on man) is called his (Human) Nature

我们说儒家把天人性化为道德的天。子思所写的‘中庸’把这个天和道联系起来：
天命之謂性，率性之謂道，修道之謂教。
第一句里的‘命’当动词解为‘给’。天所给我们的就叫性。
英语把性和自然都译为‘nature’，可是中文里这两个词在语意是没有关联的。英语 nature在西方思维里包含了中国古代所没有的超越现实。一般上，性可译为human nature。
什么叫‘率直之性’？儒家有另一个说法叫‘赤子之心’。一般观察小孩出生百日后才开始说话。在这之前，他的心是率直、纯净、清洁、无压力、自然的。这时的心就可以形容为率性。赤子之心就是道。我们要注意的是这个道为人道。人道又是一个重要的华人概念。
小孩开始说话后，他就被周围的环境和人所影响，所以孔子说：‘性相近也，习相远也。’故人需要教化以回到赤子之心的道。儒家传统，教化的过程就是修道。
道家的修道意思又不大相同，指顺其自然之道以达长生不老。
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We have said that the Confucians have extended the meaning of the Chinese word Tian to mean an ethical Tian. In Zhong Yong (The Doctrine of Mean), a book written by Zisi, Tian is linked to Dao:
What Tian confers (on man) is called his (human) nature;

Following our straightforward nature is called the Dao;

Cultivating the Dao is called education.
One should note that the word Ming (命) in the first sentence is a verb that means ‘confers’. So Tian Ming here is not to be interpreted as the Decree of Heaven.
The word Xing (性) needs clarification. Xing, ziran (自然) are both commonly translated into English as ‘nature’, but the two terms have no semantic relationship to each other in Chinese. The translation ‘nature’ has implications from Western conceptual scheme of a transcendent reality that was nonexistent in ancient China. Xing is conventionally interpreted as ‘human nature’.
What then is ‘straightforward nature’? The Confucians have another term for it called ‘The bare mind’ (赤子之心 also translated as The Pure Heart）。It is observed that a child starts to speak only about one hundred days after his birth. Before this, his mind is straightforward, pure, clear, without stress, and is as natural as it is. His mind during this period is termed a Bare Mind and it is this stage of mind that is known as Dao. One must take note that this Dao refers to the Dao of Humanity – which is another important Chinese concept.
After a child starts to talk, his mind will be influenced by his natural environment, people surrounding him, as Confucius observed: 'men are close in human nature but far apart in practice’. (The Analects, 17.2) Therefore there is a need to cultivate it back to the bare mind again.
In the Confucian tradition, the process of cultivation is known as Education ‘xiudao修道’.
The term ‘xiudao修道’ is used by the Doaists rather differently to mean the cultivation of Dao to attain immortality.

形而上道有时间性吗？Is the Ontological Dao Before Physical Form?

我们注意到‘道’是中文里最难理解的其中的一个字。但是它是一个很重要的概念，值得经常探讨。
‘易经’里‘形而上者谓之道’可以在英文翻译为‘What is above-form is called the Dao’。问题是在英语里‘形之上’Above-form 不易理解。
另一个翻译是：What exists before physical form is called the Way.
这里Way 字没问题，因为一般对中国哲学有了解西方读者都知道这个字指‘道’。
问题是这个before 字不好理解。
一种解释是把before 解为‘无’。就是说，道是‘无形状’的。可是，这不尽然。虽然本体道不可名，可是它能变形，而且充满万物中的。
Before 也可以表示时空的次序。
在西方，时空一直是个争论性的议题。从知识论来说，时空是相对的。从本体论来说，时空是绝对的。宇宙是无限时间世界，就是说过去、现在和未来永恒存在。
中国古文没有西方时间相对应的字。‘时’多指‘时机’或‘周期性’。
把‘道’联系到时间，看来是不合理的。
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We have noted that the word Dao is one of the most difficult words to understand in the Chinese literature. But it is such an important concept that we need to re-visit it many times.
The phrase ‘形而上者谓之道’ in Yijing can be translated as ‘What is above-form is called the Dao’. The problem here is the meaning of ‘Above-form’ in English.
Here is another translation of this phrase: What exists before physical form is called the Way.
There is no problem with the word Way – as it is commonly accepted by the Western readers who are familiar with Chinese philosophy that the word Way refers to Dao.
The problem here is how to understand the word ‘before’. One interpretation is that ‘before’ can be used here to mean ‘without it’. In other words, Dao exists without physical form. But, this may not be the case. While the ontological Dao is said to be unnamable, it is also accepted that Dao is flexible and is full of everything.
The word ‘before’ may also imply the sequence in time and space.
In the West, views on space and time have been the subject of controversy. It is said that from the epistemology angle, time and space are relative. From the ontology angle, time and space are absolute and the universe is a timeless world, which means that all the past, the present and the future exist eternally.
There is no Classical Chinese word equivalent in meaning to the English word time. The term shi in Chinese used very often to mean ‘timeliness’ or ‘seasonality’.
It would therefore seem to be absurd to associate the Dao with time.

易经：六爻之动，三极之道也 Yijing: The Six Lines and Three Powers

易经说：六爻之动，三极之道也 。
什么是三极呢？三极就是天，地和人，而天地人正是华人的宇宙观。
天地有没有缺陷呢？当然有，不然我们就不会受苦受难了。所以人要为生存而奋斗。天地有缺陷，所以人生才有价值。
人生的价值就是要‘叁赞天地之化育’。叁赞就是弥补的意思，弥补天地的化育之不足。
再谈六爻。
我们都知道，易经讲的是阴阳之道，这就是庄子所说的：‘易以道阴阳’。
对华人来说，阴阳是重要的，老子说过：‘万物负阴而抱阳，冲气以为和。’
易经里，线代表阴阳爻。实线代表阳，虚线代表阴。上曰天，下曰地，中间就是人，各据二位置，共为六爻。所以天地人一动，就是六爻。六爻互动，这就是天地人之道了。
那个推行罢黜百家，独尊儒术的汉代儒者董仲舒总结说：天生之，地养之，人成之。
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Yijing says: The movements which take place in the six lines (six places of the hexagram) show the course of the three powers in their perfect operations.
What are the three powers? They are Tian (heaven), Di (earth) and Ren (humanity), which we have noted that they form the Chinese view of a three-tier universe.
Is the universe (tian-di) perfect? Obviously, it is not and that is why we suffer so much in life. We also have to fight constantly for our survival.
Now, this is where the Chinese see the value in life, which is to be able to ‘assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth.’ Our life becomes meaningful only because the world is imperfect.
What are the six lines of the hexagram in the Yijing?
As Zhuanzi said, ‘Yijing is to show the action of the Yin and Yang.’
The Chinese always view the Yin and Yang seriously. Laozi said: ‘The myriad things contain Yin and Yang as vital forces, which achieve harmony through their interactions.’
In Yijing, the solid line of the hexagram represents yang and the broken line Yin. Tian is at the top, Di at the bottom and Ren in the middle and each occupies two positions. When any or all of the six lines move and interact, the world and people must act and interact accordingly, and that is the Way of Tian, Di and Ren.
The Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu who was responsible for establishing Confucianism as the theoretical foundation of the imperial state during the Han dynasty (206 BC - 221 AD) summarised: ‘Heaven gives birth to things and instils people with moral inclinations; Earth nourishes things and provides for their material needs; and Humanity completes or perfects all things by maintaining proper patterning (i.e., through rites and music).’

物极必反 No Extreme will Hold Long

华人看世界，‘变动’是个重要的观念。所以，华人哲学习惯于万物‘变易’的观念，而西方则一直为‘存在’这个概念所牵制。
万物变动的最基本规律就是‘物极必反’的观念。
易经中对自然现象变动的观察就隐含了物极必反的观念：“日往则月来，月往则日来，日月相推而明生焉。寒往则暑来，暑往则寒来，寒暑相推而岁成焉。”
易经乾卦上九所说‘亢龙有悔’就是警告个人自我膨胀到极点，会险峻摔倒。就是说，人要知道自己的极限。
老子在‘道德经’说：‘反者道之动’和‘大曰逝，逝曰远，远曰反’，都是表示东西发展到极点，它不可避免的会回头走。
这个观念对华人影响重大，所谓居安思危，天无绝人之路。它也为儒家一个重要观念‘中庸之道’提供了依据。
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The notion of change is at the very heart of the Chinese world-view. As such, Chinese philosophy is always more comfortable with the notion of ‘becoming’ than is its Western counterpart, which frequently finds itself bogged down in the problems associated with ‘being’.
The most fundamental law that governs the change of things is the notion of wu ji bi fan (物极必反) which can be translated as ‘When a thing reaches its extreme or limit, it reverses its course’ or ‘No extreme will hold long’.
The concept had its root in Yijing when the following observation of change in nature was made: ‘The sun goes and the moon comes; the moon goes and the sun comes; the sun and moon thus take the place each of the other and their shining is the result. The cold goes and the heat comes; the heat goes and the cold comes; it is by this mutual succession of the cold and heat that the year is completed.’
This was further elaborated when Yijing said ‘Nine at the top of Qian hexagram means arrogant dragon will have cause to repent.’ This line warns against titanic aspirations that exceed one's power. A precipitous fall would follow. That means one must always observe one’s limit.
Laozi said in Dao De Jing that ‘Reversal is the movement of Dao’ (chapter 40) and that ‘To go further and further means to revert again’ or ‘Great, it passes on (in constant flow). Passing on, it becomes remote. Having become remote, it returns.’ (chapter 25). That means if something develops certain extreme qualities, these qualities invariably revert to become their opposites.
This notion has great effect on the Chinese people so that they will always remain cautious even in time of prosperity, and hopeful in time of extreme difficulty. It also provides the basis for the argument of doctrine of the golden Mean, which is advocated by Confucianists.

形而上与形而上学 Above-Form Dao and Metaphysics

读中国哲学与古书时，应该注意形而上与形而上学是两个不同的概念。

形而上学是英语Metaphysics的中文翻译，而形而上三个字来自易经中的‘形而上者谓之道’。可是易经中所指的形而上是超乎形象之外的非现实世界，和形而上学所要研究的是课题是不同的。

形而上学主要是讨论存在和与宇宙的问题，所以它的课题是：宇宙论、本体论。

宇宙论讨论宇宙的整体和人在其中的位置。本体论讨论世上的万物和物与物之间的关系。

可见，形而上学所讨论的是实物，与易经里‘形而下者谓之器’的器反而吻合。看起来，Metaphysics的中文译名应该是形而下学了。

可是，最近一些人，非哲学家，常用Metaphysics来形容超乎形象之外的非现实世界，如灵魂学，信仰治疗，水晶力量，方术，之流。这些课题都不在传统形而上学研究范围内的。

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The Chinese readers may be forgiven for confusing the term Above-Form with Metaphysics. The cause of confusion is a result of translating the English word Metaphysics into Chinese by borrowing words from Yijing.
Metaphysics is called 'Xing Er Shang Xue 形而上学' and the words Xing Er Shang come from Yijing's 'Xing Er Shang Zhe Wei Zhi Dao (What is Above Form is called the Dao)'. Xing Er Shang in Yijing refers to things that are Above Form, or things that are without shapes and features, ie non-physical things.
But metaphysics is traditionally more concerned with physical things than non-physical things. It is concerned with explaining the ultimate nature of being and the world. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics.
Cosmology is study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity's place in it. Ontology is the investigation of what types of things there are in the world and what relations these things bear to one another.
So, Metaphysics is very much dealing with physical things. The term used in Yijing to describe the physical things is actually 'Within-Form' (Xing Er Xia). It would therefore appear that a better Chinese translation of metaphysics is 'Xing Er Xia Xue 形而下学'. Sigh...
However, it is noted that more recently, the term "metaphysics" has also been used by non-philosophers to refer to "subjects that are beyond the physical world", such as studies on spirits, faith healing, crystal power, occultism, and other such topics which the philosophic pursuit of metaphysics generally does not include....Sigh...sigh.....

形而上之道与形而下之道 The Above-Form Dao and the Within-Form Dao

我们都知道，读中国古书不易。难在哪里呢？难在有时一字多用，或者多字同义。

例如，谈中国文化，一个‘道’字最难解释。这个道字，有时候讲形而上，有时候讲形而下。

我们说过，形而上的道是不可命名，不可说的。老子说‘道常无名’中的道就是形而上的道。

问题是，很多时候形而下的法则也叫道，甚至我们走的路也叫做道，如果读古书不求甚解，就会被误导了。

易经其实是讲阴阳和人生哲学比较多。虽然讲明‘形而上者谓之道’，可是对这个形而上的道的阐述并不多，反而讲的多数是应用之道，读时我们不可不察。例如，易经讲‘一阴一阳之谓道’就是形而下的应用之道。

在道家思想中，我们知道有‘有’与‘无’，‘有名’与‘无名’的区别，其实只有‘有名’和‘无名’的区别，‘有’与‘无’是‘有名’和‘无名’的简称而已。‘无’和‘无名’是相同意思的。

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We all know it is not easy to read the Chinese classics. Why? Because very often, a single word or term is used in different contexts to mean different things and in other cases, a single concept can be called by many names.

The word Dao is one of the most difficult words to understand in the Chinese literature.

We have noted that Yijing says that what is above form is called the Dao and this above-form Dao is unnameable. The is the same Dao when Laozi said: "Dao is eternal, nameless."

However, quite often, Dao is also used to represent the within-form namable rules or principles, and this can cause confusion to whose who are not familiar with its usage.

One has to understand that Yijing is basically a Book of Changes based on Yin-Yang theory and it does not elaborate very much on Dao, especially on the above-form Dao. Very often, when it talks about Dao, it really refers to the within-form Dao, or the Way (guiding principles). For example, when it says, 'The successive movement of the inactive Yin and active Yang operations constitutes what is called the Dao.' The Dao here refers to the within-form Dao, or the course of things.

In the Daoism philosophy, there is a distinction between You and Wu (Being and Non-being), and between You-Ming and Wu-Ming (Nameable and Unnameable). These two distinctions are in fact only one, for You and Wu are simply the abbreviated terms for You-Ming and Wu-Ming. Wu and Wu-Ming are used interchangeably.

易经说道: 形而上者谓之道 Yijing: What is above Form is Called the Dao

易经为五经之首，是中国最重要的一本古典经书。从古到今，学者无不对它终生研读。他对中国古典哲学无论是儒道释三家，影响深刻。

道是哲学中最重要的中心思想，为儒释道广泛研论。道在中国哲学的地位犹如‘存在’和‘真理’在西方哲学所占据的地位一样。中国哲学所说的“道”归根到底是一样的，都是天地人等万物如何生成。

易经说：形而上者谓之道，形而下者谓之器。

形而上就是超乎形象之外的非现实世界。那么，形而下就是现实世界了。器自然就是器物。把道和器放在一起，道就没有那么神秘了。

老子认为一切形而下的东西都有名字，或者至少有命名的可能。形而上的东西虽然也有可命名的，但是所有不可命名的都是形而上的。道就是这一类的概念。

老子说：‘道可道，非常道，名可名，非常名。’又说：‘道常无名，朴。’

就是说，可以说的道是形而下之道，不是永恒的形而上之道。所以说道恒常而不能命名，道也是朴实的。

道既然不可命名，为什么又被称为‘道’呢？因为我们要谈论它，不得不以语言来加以形容，只好称它为‘道’了。道其实不是个名字。它是个符号，与我们所称树木的东西是不同的。我们叫一棵树为树时，我们知道树是有属性的。而我们谈道时，不是因为它有什么属性，而只把它当成一种指称。

所以，道不是神秘的虚谈，只是我们对那些不可命名的超乎形象的指称和符号罢了。

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The Yijing易經, or I Ching, the Book of Changes, is unquestionably one of the most important books in China. Its origin goes back to mythical antiquity, and it has occupied the attention of the most eminent scholars of China down to the present day. Nearly all that is greatest and most significant in the three thousand years of Chinese cultural history has either taken its inspiration from this book, or has exerted an influence on the interpretation of its text.

And Dao (Tao) is a pivotal concept of ancient Chinese thought and is the center of Chinese philosophical discussion. It occupies the position at the center of thought that in Western philosophy is filled by terms like 'being' or 'truth'.

Yijing has this to say about Dao:

What is above form is called the Dao; what is within Form are called Qi (器) ie ‘actual things and affairs.’

Forms are things that lie within shapes and features, they are physical things.

Laozi, the great Taoism philosopher elaborated that all those within Form, ie physical things must have names, ie they are nameable. While not all above Form are unnameable, what is unnameable mostly is above form. Laozi therefore said: "The Dao that can comprised in words is not the eternal Dao; the name that can be named is not the abidding name." and that "Dao is eternal, nameless, the Uncarved Block. Once the block is carved, there are names."

As Dao is unnameable, it cannot be comprised in words. Then how can we give it a name Dao? This is because we wish to talk about it, we are forced to give it some kind of designation.

So Dao is really not a name. That is to say, to call the Dao Dao, is different from calling a tree tree. When we call a tree tree, we mean it has some attributes by which it can be named. But when we call the Dao Dao, we do not mean that it has any such nameable attributes. It is simply a designation.

So, Dao is actually not something mysterious, it is just a designation to what is above form, which is unnameable.