礼生乐 Chinese: Rites Gave birth to Arts

据说把礼节与乐（特别是音乐与书法）结合起来，在商朝（公元前1766-1122）就开始了。当时礼器以动物的形象来装饰，还铭刻了象形字 -- 书写文字的古老前身。所以中国美学理论的一个要点就是礼生乐。意思是从第一天开始，艺术品就为它的社区与国家服务。

实际上，乐本来就是《论语》的主题。孔子以音乐来比喻，遵照传统礼节就是把社会次序安排好：‘乐其可知也：始作，翕如也；从之，纯如也，皦如也，绎如也，以成。’

当整个音乐队表演好，它可以毫不费力地达到统一与和谐。没有人需要为了玩得好而受限制或被说服，或需要通过他与乐队的合作。老实说，这就是遵守传统礼节而造就的社会和谐的形象。在这样的社会里，没有人需要被强迫去配合整体；一个人只要参与礼节，他就已经在和谐之中。孔子的政治哲学就很好地被说成主要是美学的，它强调美好地安排传统构成元素。

荀子谈到礼乐时说：‘故乐行而志清，礼修而行成。耳目聪明，血气和平，移风易俗，天下皆宁，莫善于乐。故曰：乐者，乐也。’

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It is said that the association of rituals and Chinese arts, music and calligraphy in particular, begin in the Shang Dynasty (1766 BC – 1122 BC), when ritual vessels were decorated with images of animals and inscribed with pictographs, the ancient precursors of written language. Therefore one salient feature of the Chinese aesthetic theory is that Rites gave birth to Arts. That means right from the beginning, art objects have always serve the interests of the communities and states that they inhabit.

Indeed, music is central to the Analects. Confucius uses music as a metaphor for a social arrangement kept in place by the observance of traditional li:

‘This much can be known about music. It begins with playing in unison. When it gets into full swing, it is harmonious, clear, and unbroken. In this way it reaches its conclusion.’ (3:23)

When a musical ensemble is playing well, it achieves unity and harmony effortlessly. No one has to be constrained or exhorted to play well or to combine his efforts with that of the group. Again, this is an image of a state of social harmony created by the observance of traditional rites. In such a state, no one has to be forced to act harmoniously with the whole; by virtue of one's participation in li, one is already in harmony. It has been well said that Confucius' political philosophy is essentially aesthetic, emphasizing a beautiful arrangement of traditional elements.

Xunzi has this to say about music and ritual:

Therefore when music is performed, the inner mind becomes pure; and when ritual is cultivated, conducted is perfected. The ears become acute and the eyes clear-sighted; the blood humour becomes harmonious and is balanced, manners are altered and customs changed. The entire world is made tranquil, and enjoys together beauty and goodness. Therefore it is said, ‘music is joy.’

中华礼乐文化 The Chinese Culture of Rites and Arts

通常说，在古代中国，社会与政治的秩序是二而一的；统治者与君子的个人品德保证国家健全。礼与乐是良好秩序的关键，因为当时的音乐是民间与官方礼仪的重点。

所以，政府如果重视实践最适宜的、在历代传统中选用的礼与乐，自然会产生有德行与快乐的百姓；律法已不必要，因为争论根本就不会发生。

在古代中国，最早的礼节是指律法条文与祭拜上天之灵的正式仪式。周朝就有了成熟仪式来规化人们的行为、协调冲突、人际关系与确保完好的人事管理。以礼促进社会秩序，终止纷争与惩罚战乱，调节奢侈与损耗。礼是人们对他的生活与工作的满意的前提。

孔子提倡礼为一种理想的准则与典范。他崇拜周礼，曾说：‘周監於二代，郁郁乎文哉！吾從周。’可是，在他那时候，人们渐渐地偏离周礼，这就是他开始再度提倡周礼的原因。

《周礼》中的《文王世子第八》（约公元前1073）就这么说：‘凡三王教世子必以礼乐。乐，所以修内也；礼，所以修外也。礼乐交错于中， 发形于外，是故其成也怿，恭敬而温文。’

就是说，所有先王都同样重视礼与乐的教育。两者关系密切，礼融于乐而乐参透所有礼节。它们纵横交错，各有重点。

这就是中国的礼乐文化。

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Generally speaking, in ancient China, social and political orders were the same, and the personal virtue of rulers and gentlemen ensured the health of the state. The keys to good order were rites (li) and music, for Chinese music of the period was central to customary and official rites.

Therefore, a government that pay great attention to practice the most fitting rites and music, selected from the various available traditions, would automatically produce virtuous and happy citizens; laws would be almost unnecessary because disputes would never arise.

The earliest rites (li) in ancient China refer to regulations on the articles and ritual formalities for offering sacrifice to heavenly spirits. A sophisticated system of li came into being in the Zhou Dynasty to regulate people’s conducts, reconcile conflicts, coordinate interpersonal relationship and ensure perfect management of personnel affairs. Li makes social order, puts an end to contentions and scourge of war and moderates extravagance and dissipation. Li is the premises of people’s happiness about their lives and work.

Confucius advocates li as a desirable standard and norm. He admired the li of Zhou and once said, 'Zhou had the advantage of learning from the two past dynasties. How complete and elegant are its regulations! I follow Zhou.' However, during his time, people gradually drifted away from the rites of the Zhou, and this is the reason why Confucius began to advocate it once more.

The Records of Rites depicts the education of Wen Wang (Civil King, c.1073 BC):

The kings of the three dynasties (Xia, Shang and Zhou, c.2100-c.771 BC) taught their princes li (rites) and yue (music). For music is used to cultivate one’s mind, and rites, to train one’s manners and behaviours. For those have internalised both Li and Yue, the result will be reflected in their pleasant appearances, respectful and gentle behaviours.

That is to say, all the early kings paid equal stress on the education of rites and music. The two are closely related to each other with rites dissolving in the form of music and music permeating through the field of rites. They are interwoven and each has its particular stress.

Such is the Chinese culture of Rites and Arts.

书法线条素质 The Qualities of the Brush Strokes

我们注意到笔画是中国书法的两个主要构成元素之一。

普遍被接受的是，书法家的作品应反映组成中国文字的线条的力度、朴质与优美。你必须能够掌握用笔的技巧才能控制笔力。

能手所出必能显示所传递的笔画所蕴藏的踏实、精确、流畅、气势与力度。这里所说的力度意味艺术家所创造出的笔画所显示的高度集中力与完美控制。一条精细与富有韧性的线条应该具有传达新鲜与活力的力量。

笔画给予书法节奏与优美，显露书法家的个性与风格。就算那些不懂得中文的人，他们也可以对每一条线条的运转与富有表情的素质有所反应。允许眼睛跟着毛笔的轨迹，我们参与了书法家本身的脉搏活动与决定。

中国传统的美学鉴定笔画的四个素质。在完美的书写中应该精确地平衡这些素质。

骨：骨力要令人感到笔画不可分裂而不感暴躁。

肉：富有滋养的线条，而不觉放纵与肥胖。

筋：无形的韧带把字与字间联系起来。

血：就是墨的质地，不可似水或泥浆。

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We noted that one of the two key elements of Chinese calligraphy is the brushstroke.

It is well accepted that the calligrapher’s works must attest to the strength, simplicity and beauty of the lines or strokes that form the Chinese characters. In order to control the strength of this stroke well, you may need to master the proven techniques of operating the brush.

The result from a master’s hand bespeaks sureness, precision, fluency, vigour and strength underlying its delivery. Strength in this particular connection denotes the intense concentration and perfect control of the brush on the part of the artist as reflected in the brushwork created by him. A fine and supple line must possess strength to impart freshness and vitality.

The brush strokes give the calligraphy rhythm and beauty, and reveal the individuality and style of the calligrapher himself. Even those who do not understand the meaning of the Chinese characters could respond to the movement of the brush, and to the expressive qualities of each stroke. As allowing the eyes to follow the path of the brush, one engages the impulses and decisions of the calligrapher.

The Chinese traditional aesthetic theory has valuated individual brush strokes according to four Qualities, which should be perfectly balanced in flawless writing:

Bone: Such a feeling of strength in the strokes that it appears impossible to break them, yet without bitterness.

Flesh: A well-nourished quality in the strokes, without, however, self-indulgence or fatness.

Sinew: The appearance of one stroke being joined to the next by invisible ligaments, and also one character to the next.

Blood: A full texture in the ink, which should resemble neither water nor sludge.

后现代主义：人类一无所有 Postmodernism: Nothing Remains in One's Hands

后现代主义照字义是指现代主义之后的运动。现代主义一般被是对确实、原理、系统化思考、理性、个人思维的理论能力的信任的一种哲学门径。

后现代主义，一般而言，对现代主义对理性、原理、系统化思考的信心提出质疑。很多后现代主义者认为没有普世知识与道德这回事。他们也深深地怀疑能够推理与以思考来代表现实的‘自我’。

一般认为德国哲学家尼采是后现代主义之父，随之还有海德格尔、利奥陀、德里达、福柯，等等。

‘上帝已经死亡’是被广为引用的尼采之言。或者尼采这句话应该更适当的解释为‘上帝’这类的潮流（宗教的或精神的）已不足以当作道德的准则或精神了。

上帝之死可能是人类不再相信宇宙秩序的其中的一种述说，因为人类不再承认这种秩序了。尼采说，上帝之死不但会导致对宇宙或物质秩序的信仰的舍弃，也会导致对绝对价值本身的舍弃 – 那些把所有人类个体相连起来的客观的、普世的道德法则的舍弃。就这样，失去了道德的绝对依据，导致虚无主义。这虚无主义正是尼采重新评估人类价值的根基所要寻找的解决方案。对尼采而言，那是寻找比基督价值还要深刻的根基。

在西方历史里，这是思想家首次对理性与宗教严重的质问。当这些问题开始被广泛注意，人们开始绝望，虚无主义跟着蔓延。

看来，那些习惯于哲学始于惊异的人，现在应该认真地关注忧患的智慧了。

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Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement'. Modernism is usually portrayed as a philosophical approach that has a faith in certainty, principles, systematic thinking, rationality, and the theoretical powers of the thinking individual.

Post-modernism, generally speaking, puts into question modernism's confidence in rationality, principles, and systematic thinking. Many post-modernists think that there cannot be universal knowledge or ethics. There is also a deep suspicion of the ‘self’ who is able to reason and represent reality through thought.

German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche is often called the father of post-modernism, and is followed by other thinkers such as Heidegger, Lyotard, Derrida, Foucault, etc.

‘God is dead’ is a widely-quoted statement by Nietzsche. It may be more appropriate to consider the statement as Nietzsche's way of saying that the ‘God’ of the times (religion and other such spirituality) is no longer a viable source of any moral code or spirit.

The death of God is a way of saying that humans are no longer able to believe in any such cosmic order since they themselves no longer recognize it. The death of God will lead, Nietzsche says, not only to the rejection of a belief of cosmic or physical order but also to a rejection of absolute values themselves — to the rejection of belief in an objective and universal moral law, binding upon all individuals. In this manner, the loss of an absolute basis for morality leads to nihilism. This nihilism is what Nietzsche worked to find a solution for by re-evaluating the foundations of human values. This meant, to Nietzsche, looking for foundations that went deeper than Christian values.

For the first time in the western history, the rationality and religion are being questioned seriously by the thinkers and when these questions do begin to become widely acknowledged, people would despair and nihilism would become rampant.

It looks like the people who are used to the philosophy that began in wonder will now need to have a serious look at the wisdom of concern.